Painting Eastern Women | Alexandria French

Painting Eastern Women: How 20th Century American cinema has contributed to the perpetuation of false, Orientalist Images of Middle Eastern Women

Thesis Statement: This paper will explore how 20th Century American cinema has contributed to the perpetuation of false, Orientalist images of Middle Eastern women that shape Western perceptions through a lens of exoticism, oppression, and otherness, and how this continues to impact modern views of Muslim women.

Abstract

Representations of Middle Eastern women in 20th Century American cinema were shaped by stereotypical, Orientalist portrayals that reinforced exoticism, submission, and victimization. These depictions reflected and perpetuated a skewed understanding of women in the Middle East driven by Western narratives that simplified complex cultural identities into binary tropes. This paper will examine key examples of these representations in American films from the 20th century and explore how subliminal messaging has reinforced public misconceptions. By analyzing the intersection of film, politics, and gender, this research aims to uncover how these portrayals affect real-world perceptions of Muslim women and their agency. The study will also explore how these false images perpetuate a sense of “otherness” that justifies Western intervention in the Middle East, and how this continues to marginalize Muslim women in global discourse.

Introduction

Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism provides a framework for understanding how the West perceives and constructs the East as the "Other." According to Said, Orientalism reduces diverse cultures to simplistic and romanticized stereotypes that reinforce Western dominance. These representations are rooted in a discourse of power, where the East is portrayed as exotic, irrational, and inferior to the rational and superior West.[1] Within this framework, the intersection of Orientalism and gender plays a significant role, as women are frequently depicted through an additional layer of exoticization and subjugation. Nowhere is this more evident than in early 20th-century American cinema, where Middle Eastern women were often presented as hypersexualized figures, damsel in distress, or erased entirely from the narrative.

Since its inception in 1816[2], the film has sculpted the Western World. We suddenly had access to shared experiences and a wealth of exotic tales and grandeos adventures. Ther world was visually there in front of you in black and white. We became increasingly worldy creatures and when the Lumiere Brothers First filmed “Workers Leaving the Lumier Factory”, there was no way that they could have known or imagined the global impact that moment would have.

By 1895 at the Cotton State and International Exposition of Georgia, a “movie theater” was constructed along Midway Heights as an attraction called “Living Pictures”.[3] By the 1920s, the cinema was the central point of towns all across Mainstreet USA. Movies quickly gravitated towards exotic deserts and disastrous romances. When The Sheik was shown in November of 1921 at the Rivoli and Rialto theaters, it smashed every attendance record to date in just the first three days.[4] Over 120,000 people in just three days, but nothing to the possible millions as it was shown over the next five years in theaters all over the country. During the early 20th century films served as a medium that the Western audiences consumed distorted representations of the Middle East. These portrayals were not created in isolation but rather were deeply intertwined with the political and cultural dynamics of the time including the expansion of Western imperialism and colonial interests. Hollywood quickly became complicit in reinforcing Orientalist ideologies[5]. Films like The Sheik (1921) and Cleopatra (1934) perpetuated exoticized and reductive portrayals of Middle Eastern women, shaping perceptions that persist today.

This paper examines these dynamics by analyzing the portrayals of Middle Eastern women in The Sheik and Cleopatra. These films were wildly popular during their time and exemplify the Orientalist gaze to reveal how early American cinema constructed reductive and exoticized images of Middle Eastern women. Through this analysis, this paper explores how these portrayals disregarded authentic narratives, reinforced Western misconceptions and silenced the voices of Middle Eastern women.

II. Theoretical Framework

Orientalism in Film

Said’s Orientalism offers a critical framework for understanding how cultural productions (including film) construct representations of the East to maintain and exert power. Said uses Aeschylus’s The Persians and Euripides’ The Bacchae to illustrate the line between East and West. He writes that this demarcation “remain[s] essential motifs of European imaginative geography.”[6]. These reductive stereotypes serve colonial agendas by legitimizing Western dominance and intervention[7]. Early 20th-century American cinema exemplifies this process by framing the Middle East as a mystical and uncivilized region ripe for Western intervention.

Films like The Sheik and Cleopatra employed elaborate set designs, romanticized desert landscapes, and sensual imagery to evoke an alluring yet untamed Middle East. These visual and narrative elements constructed a binary opposition between the West and the East and sustained colonial narratives that framed the East as both desirable and subordinate. By shaping audience perceptions through such portrayals cinema became complicit in reinforcing Orientalist ideologies.

Gender and Media Representation

Laura Mulvey’s theory of the “male gaze” provides a lens to analyze how women are objectified in film to satisfy male viewers’ desires. Writing, “male gaze projects its fantasy onto the female figure that is styled accordingly.”[8] Within the context of Orientalist cinema, the male gaze intersects with colonial ideologies to hypersexualize Middle Eastern women by reducing them to exotic and mysterious figures whose value lies in their visual appeal and submissiveness. These portrayals often erased the agency of Middle Eastern women and confined them to roles that aligned with Western fantasies rather than reflecting authentic cultural identities.

The Sheik exemplifies this dynamic by portraying Middle Eastern women as veiled and passive figures or temptresses who threaten Western moral values. Western portrayals of Arab women reduced them to silent figures which in turn denied their complexity and individuality. These depictions uphold colonial ideologies that perpetuate narratives that reinforce both gender and cultural hierarchies.

Postcolonial Theory

Postcolonial theory further illuminates how colonial legacies persist in media representations, particularly in American cinema. Colonial powers historically used cultural production to legitimize domination by framing colonized peoples as inferior and incapable of self-governance. This narrative strategy extended into 20th-century films that often depicted Middle Eastern societies as chaotic and backward, requiring Western intervention or rescue.

Homi Bhabha’s concept of mimicry and ambivalence in colonial discourse specifically sheds light on the contradictions inherent in these portrayals[9]. While films like The Sheik attempt to depict the Middle East as exotic and inferior, they also reveal a fascination and dependency on the very cultures they seek to subordinate. These portrayals distort and simplify the complexities of Middle Eastern identities by reinforcing a one-dimensional narrative that serves Western interests.

By integrating these theoretical perspectives, this paper dissects the intersection of Orientalism, gender, and postcolonialism in early American cinema and reveals the underlying power dynamics that shaped and sustained these portrayals.

Intersection of Film and Politics

The Orientalist narratives of The Sheik and Cleopatra were deeply influenced by the geopolitical context of their time reflecting Western anxieties and aspirations regarding the Middle East. The aftermath of World War I and the division of the Ottoman Empire into British and French colonial mandates created a framework where Western powers asserted control over the region under the guise of "stabilization." These political realities were mirrored in films like The Sheik, which portrayed the Middle East as a space of danger and disorder that required Western intervention to achieve redemption and order. Ahmed’s characterization as a "redeemable" figure who becomes more civilized through his interactions with Diana Mayo reflects this colonial ideology symbolizes the West’s perceived civilizing mission.

With this reflection, we begin to understand how deeply embedded Orientalist narratives were in Western cultural production. The collaboration between geopolitical agendas and cinematic storytelling created a framework where Western superiority was not only asserted, but normalized. Through their narratives, films like The Sheik and Cleopatra legitimized colonial ambitions by embedding these ideologies into the cultural imagination of Western audiences.

III. Critical Analysis: Orientalist Narratives in Early Cinema

Constructing the “Exotic Other” in The Sheik

Released in 1921, The Sheik exemplifies Hollywood’s construction of the Middle East as an exotic and untamed "Other," a trope central to Edward Said’s Orientalist framework. The Cambridge Dictionary defines othering as “the act of treating someone as though they are not part of a group and are different in someway.”[10] The Sheik epitomizes this construction by framing the Middle East as a space of danger and allure, symbolized by its desert landscapes and the character of Ahmed Ben Hassan.

Ahmed, portrayed by Rudolph Valentino (An Italian), embodies the Orientalist trope of the "noble savage." Defined by Britannica Encylopedia as “an idealized concept of uncivilized man, who symbolizes the innate goodness of one not exposed to the corrupting influences of civilization”, the noble savage is seen in Ahmed’s perceived savagery. His character oscillates between danger and redemption which reinforces colonial ideologies of the East as both threatening and in need of Western guidance. Diana Mayo, an independent well to do Western woman becomes the vehicle for Ahmed’s transformation. This narrative dynamic aligns with broader colonial fantasies where the East is portrayed as a space to be tamed, civilized, and redeemed through the influence of Western values.

A pivotal scene that illustrates this dynamic is Ahmed’s abduction of Diana that serves as the inciting event of the film. The act presents Ahmed as a dangerous figure while setting the stage for his eventual domestication through Diana’s civilizing influence. The sweeping untamed desert landscape mirrors Ahmed’s character, symbolizing both the allure and chaos of the East. As Ellen Summerfield argues in Crossing Cultures Through Film, “the myth to be dispelled is that of a one-sided relationship:…Americans teach, others learn.”[11]

The erasure of Middle Eastern women further reinforces this narrative framework. Diana’s independence is juxtaposed with the absence of active female characters from the region directly silencing their voices and agency. These portrayals marginalize Middle Eastern women by framing them solely as passive or oppressed and deny their individuality and cultural significance. This erasure shows the extent to which the film operates within an Orientalist framework and privileging Western narratives while excluding authentic Middle Eastern perspectives.

Subliminal Messaging in Cleopatra

Cleopatra (1934) continues the tradition of Orientalist portrayals, but its focus shifts to the hypersexualization of Middle Eastern women. Claudette Colbert’s portrayal of Cleopatra reduces the character’s historical and political significance to her sexuality by framing her power as deriving solely from her ability to seduce powerful men. Depicting her this way aligns with patriarchal and colonial stereotypes that equate Eastern femininity with decadence and moral ambiguity.

The film’s visual opulence, including elaborate costumes and exotic set designs, further exoticizes Cleopatra’s character. While the production’s aesthetic grandeur captivated audiences it also reinforced reductive stereotypes by framing the Middle East as a land of excess and sensuality. Such portrayals distort the lived realities of Middle Eastern women by replacing them with fantasies that serve Western interests. By centering Cleopatra’s identity around her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, the film erases her political acumen and reduces her to a figure of seduction.

Moreover, Cleopatra perpetuates the trope of the Middle East as a morally ambiguous space. This framing legitimizes Western intervention by implying that the region’s instability stems from its inherent decadence. These narratives construct a vision of the East that is both alluring and threatening, justifying Western control as a stabilizing force. The film aligns with broader Orientalist frameworks that portray the Middle East as a region incapable of self-governance by presenting Cleopatra as a symbol of Eastern decadence.

IV. The Absence of Counternarratives: Dominance of Orientalist Narratives Before 1953

Monolithic Depictions in Early Cinema

Films like The Sheik and Cleopatra dominated early American cinema’s portrayal of the Middle East and shaped Western perceptions through narratives steeped in Orientalist tropes. These films were highly influential not only because of their commercial success, but also due to their ability to present themselves as definitive representations of the Middle East. Upon its release, The Sheik grossed over $1 million[12] —a remarkable achievement for the time—and received widespread acclaim for its romanticized and adventurous depiction of the desert. The November 27, 1921 Wichita Eagle gave the film a half page promotion as the movie made its way through cinemas nationwide. Referring to Valentino, the article states “wait until you see him as the tempestuous love in The Sheik.”[13]

Similarly, Cleopatra (1934) was celebrated for its visual splendor and Claudette Colbert’s portrayal of the titular character. Critics marveled at its opulent production design, with Vancouver Sun describing Colbert’s presentation of Cleopatra as “all that could be desired” “seductive, winsome, and regal by turn, she gives to the character that living touch that makes it real.”[14] Given that Colbert was a White French woman playing the role of an Egyptian Cleopatra, these accolades underscore how the films captivated Western audiences by satisfying their curiosity about the "exotic" East while reinforcing Orientalist stereotypes.

The popularity of these films came at the expense of authentic representation. As Edward Said argues, Orientalist narratives often construct the East "The Orient is the stage on which the Whole East is confined"[15] . In the case of The Sheik, Middle Eastern women are entirely absent from the narrative and their voices are erased in favor of a story that centers Western perspectives. Cleopatra similarly reduces its titular character to a hypersexualized figure by eclipsing her historical significance and political agency.

Western portrayals of Middle Eastern women frequently replace their lived realities with dehumanizing stereotypes. By silencing these voices, early American cinema created a monolithic depiction of the Middle East, presenting it as a homogenous and exoticized landscape populated by archetypal figures that reinforced Western dominance.

The Lack of Authentic Middle Eastern Voices

The absence of authentic Middle Eastern voices in films like The Sheik and Cleopatra ensured that their narratives went unchallenged in mainstream media. These stories were written, directed, and produced by Western creators with little to no engagement with Middle Eastern cultures. This resulted in portrayals that were shaped entirely by Western fantasies and biases. As Ellen Summerfield notes in Crossing Cultures Through Film, "The model of linear development itself, with some countries perceived as ahead of others, needs to be replaced by a model of mutual respect, learning, and assistance.”[16]

This absence is especially significant given the impact of these films on public perceptions. The success of The Sheik and Cleopatra cemented a singular narrative of the Middle East in the Western imagination, one that prioritized fantasy over reality and spectacle over substance. By framing the Middle East through a lens of exoticism and danger, these films not only entertained but also miseducated their audiences, embedding Orientalist stereotypes into cultural consciousness.

A document released by the CIA in 2009, written in 2002 titled, Potential Arab Reactions to US Efforts to Facilitate the Promotion of Democracy and Development in the Middle East, underscores the long-term implications of such portrayals. It notes that "favorable portrayals of Arabs in U.S. media could significantly improve Arab perceptions of the West." [17] This statement highlights the enduring power of media to shape international relations and underscores the damage caused by decades of reductive and exoticized portrayals of the Middle East.

The Absence of Counter-Narratives Before 1953

Before 1953, there were few, if any, counter-narratives to challenge the dominant Orientalist portrayals in American cinema. The geopolitical dominance of Western powers during the early 20th century ensured that these narratives remained unopposed. This phenomenon known as a "hegemonic discourse"[18], marginalizes alternative perspectives, ensuring that the West’s construction of the East becomes the accepted reality.

The absence of authentic Middle Eastern perspectives allowed films like The Sheik and Cleopatra to define the cultural imagination of the Middle East for Western audiences. This lack of diversity in representation also perpetuated a cycle of misperception where the region was consistently framed as a site of danger, mystique, and subjugation. These portrayals reinforce cultural hierarchies that privilege Western narratives, leaving little room for authentic voices to emerge.

V. Post-1953 Shifts in Representation

Emergence of Counter-Narratives

Catalyzed by geopolitical events such as decolonization movements and the Suez Crisis of 1956, the mid-20th century marked a turning point in global discourse surrounding the Middle East. These events disrupted the colonial status quo and created space for counter-narratives that challenged the reductive portrayals established by early American cinema

One notable counter-narrative is Moustapha Akkad’s The Message (1976), a film that sought to offer an accurate and respectful depiction of the birth of Islam. Unlike The Sheik and Cleopatra, The Message foregrounded the cultural and historical significance of the Middle East by consulting Islamic scholars and involving Middle Eastern actors to ensure accuracy.

A key distinction between The Message and its predecessors lies in its portrayal of women. Where The Sheik and Cleopatra depicted Middle Eastern women as either passive or hypersexualized, The Message presented them as active participants in their society. This nuanced portrayal challenges the Orientalist trope of the voiceless Eastern woman and offers a more complex and humanized representation.

Cultural and Political Catalysts for Change

The shift toward more authentic representation was also influenced by broader cultural and political changes. Decolonization movements across Africa and Asia challenged the ideological underpinnings of Orientalist narratives, while the rise of Arab nationalism foregrounded the agency of Middle Eastern societies. The Suez Crisis of 1956, for example, highlighted the political power of the Middle East on the global stage and forced Western nations to reevaluate their perceptions of the region. These geopolitical shifts necessitated a more nuanced understanding of the Middle East as well as paved the way for narratives that moved beyond the simplistic binaries of earlier portrayals.

The intellectual contributions of scholars like Said further challenged the cultural dominance of Orientalist narratives. Orientalism, published in 1978, provided a critical framework for understanding how Western cultural production perpetuated power imbalances. Said’s work galvanized a wave of critical engagement with media and prompted filmmakers and writers to reconsider the narratives they constructed. This shift is evident in films like The Message, that actively sought to counter the distortions of early Orientalist cinema.

Significance of the Turning Point

The introduction of counter-narratives post-1953 marked a significant cultural reckoning with the legacy of Orientalism. These narratives sought to correct the distortions perpetuated by films like The Sheik and Cleopatra and presented the Middle East as a region of diversity, complexity, and humanity. By breaking away from the binary of the "civilized" West and the "savage" East, these works laid the foundation for a more equitable cultural dialogue.

The progress of these counter-narratives was not without limitations however. While The Message and similar works offered more balanced portrayals, they often struggled to gain the same level of commercial success and cultural influence as their Orientalist predecessors. The enduring dominance of Western media continues to marginalize alternative perspectives and makes the fight for authentic representation an ongoing struggle. This underscores the challenges of fully dismantling the stereotypes embedded in early American cinema.

While The Message did not achieve the same commercial success as The Sheik, its cultural significance cannot be understated. The film represents a pivotal moment in cinematic history, where the narrative shifted from Western fantasies to a more authentic representation of Middle Eastern culture. This shift is part of a broader effort to decolonize media and provide audiences with a more nuanced understanding of the Middle East.

V. Concluding Thoughts

Cultural Responsibility and the Role of Media

Modern filmmakers bear a significant responsibility to address the historical inaccuracies and stereotypes perpetuated by early Orientalist cinema. The narratives constructed by films like The Sheik and Cleopatra did not just reflect Western biases, but actively shaped public perceptions of the Middle East and embeded these distortions into cultural consciousness. As Edward Said asserts, cultural production is never neutral; it "both reflects and reinforces the power dynamics of its time"[19]

By engaging critically with these portrayals, filmmakers can begin to deconstruct the stereotypes that continue to influence global perceptions. Films like The Message demonstrate the potential of cinema to foster cultural understanding by amplifying authentic voices and prioritizing accuracy over spectacle. Media has the power to either perpetuate existing hierarchies or challenge them by centering marginalized perspectives.

The trope of the hypersexualized or silent Middle Eastern woman remains pervasive in some contemporary films however there is a growing recognition of the need to move beyond these reductive portrayals. This shift is evident in the increasing involvement of Middle Eastern filmmakers and actors in shaping their own narratives. Such representation not only counters the distortions of early Orientalist cinema but also enriches the global cultural landscape by presenting the Middle East as a region of complexity and humanity.

The Potential of Cinema for Decolonization

Cinema has the potential to play a transformative role in decolonizing narratives and fostering cross-cultural understanding. The power of film lies in its ability to reach broad audiences and shape public perceptions, making it a crucial medium for challenging stereotypes and amplifying authentic voices. Representation is not just about visibility; it is about the power to define and shape how a culture is understood. To achieve this, filmmakers must engage critically with the legacy of Orientalist cinema and acknowledge its role in perpetuating stereotypes while striving to create narratives that reflect the diversity and richness of Middle Eastern cultures. By prioritizing accuracy and inclusivity modern media can contribute to a more equitable cultural dialogue and challenge the distorted portrayals that have historically dominated Western representations of the Middle East.

VIII. Conclusion

Summary of Findings

The analysis of The Sheik and Cleopatra reveals the profound role early 20th-century American cinema played in constructing and perpetuating Orientalist narratives. These films reduced Middle Eastern women to simplistic tropes—either hypersexualized temptresses or silent, subjugated figures—while portraying the Middle East as a land of exoticism and danger in need of Western intervention. Through these reductive portrayals, The Sheik and Cleopatra shaped Western perceptions of the Middle East and embedded cultural stereotypes that continue to resonate in modern media to this day. A critical factor in the dominance of these narratives was the absence of authentic Middle Eastern voices in their creation. Such portrayals served to reinforce Western cultural and political dominance as well as frame the East as inferior and dependent on Western guidance. This erasure of agency ensured that these films became the primary lens through which Western audiences understood the Middle East and normalized the distorted images they projected. These portrayals not only misrepresented Middle Eastern women but also marginalized their identities and reinforced a one-dimensional view of their cultures.

Broader Implications

The enduring influence of Orientalist portrayals underscores the necessity of critically engaging with their legacy. Early films like The Sheik and Cleopatra reflect a colonial mindset that prioritized Western fantasies over authentic representation. These portrayals shaped cultural attitudes and also justified political and military interventions in the Middle East, perpetuating cycles of misunderstanding and marginalization.

Modern cinema holds the potential to dismantle these narratives by amplifying authentic Middle Eastern voices and prioritizing accuracy. Counter-narratives such as The Message demonstrate how filmmakers can challenge stereotypes and foster a more nuanced understanding of the region. The responsibility of media is not only to entertain but also to educate by offering representations that reflect the diversity and complexity of human. By embracing this responsibility, filmmakers can contribute to a decolonized cultural landscape, one that values authenticity over spectacle.

The examination of The Sheik and Cleopatra highlights the power of media to shape perceptions and the lasting impact of Orientalist narratives. These films, celebrated in their time, distorted the realities of Middle Eastern cultures and reinforced stereotypes that continue to influence global perceptions. While counter-narratives like The Message have made strides in challenging these portrayals, much work remains to be done.

The role of modern media extends beyond correcting the errors of the past and now it has the potential to redefine how cultures are understood, fostering mutual respect and understanding. By centering authentic voices and rejecting the reductive tropes of Orientalism, filmmakers can ensure that future representations reflect the richness and humanity of Middle Eastern cultures. In doing so, cinema can become a tool not only for storytelling but also for reconciliation, breaking down the barriers of "otherness" that have defined Western portrayals of the East for far too long.

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“POTENTIAL ARAB REACTIONS TO US EFFORTS TO FACILITATE THE PROMOTION OF DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST.” Https://Www.Cia.Gov/Readingroom/Document/0001327065. Central Intelligence Agency, 2002. Accessed December 1, 2024. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0001327065.

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[1] Said, Edward W. “ORIENTALISM”

[2] Newhall, Beaumont (1982). The History of Photography

[3] “Vintage: Everyday Life of Atlanta, Georgia (19th Century)”

[4] Internet Archive, January 1, 1970.

[5] Michalek, Laurence. “The Arab in American Cinema: A Century of Otherness.” Cinéaste

[6] Said, Edward W. “ORIENTALISM”

[7] Said, Edward W. “ORIENTALISM.”

[8] L. Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,”

[9] Bhabha, Homi. “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse.”

[10] Cambridge dictionary

[11] Summerfield, Crossing Cultures Through Film

[12] AFI|Catalog.

[13] Nov 27, 1921, Page 31 - The Wichita Eagle

[14] Oct 06, 1934, Page 16 - the Vancouver Sun

[15] Said, Edward W. “ORIENTALISM”

[16] Summerfield, Ellen: Crossing Cultures Through Film

[17] “Potential Arab Reactions To US Efforts To Facilitate The Promotion Of Democracy And Developments In The Middle East.”

[18] Bullock, Trombley, and Lawrie, The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought

[19] Said, Edward W. Orientalisim; The Georgia Review